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Job satisfaction describes how content an individual is with his or her job. It
is a relatively recent term since in previous centuries the jobs available to a
particular person were often predetermined by the occupation of that person's
parent. There are a variety of factors that can influence a person's level of
job satisfaction; some of these factors include the level of pay and benefits,
the perceived fairness of the promotion system within a company, the quality of
the working conditions, leadership and social relationships, and the job itself
(the variety of tasks involved, the interest and challenge the job generates,
and the clarity of the job description/requirements).
The happier people are within their job, the more satisfied they are said to be.
Job satisfaction is not the same as motivation, although it is clearly linked.
Job design aims to enhance job satisfaction and performance, methods include job
rotation, job enlargement and job enrichment. Other influences on satisfaction
include the management style and culture, employee involvement, empowerment and
autonomous work groups. Job satisfaction is a very important attribute which is
frequently measured by organisations. The most common way of measurement is the
use of rating scales where employees report their reactions to their jobs.
Questions relate to rate of pay, work responsibilities, variety of tasks,
promotional opportunities the work itself and co-workers. Some questioners ask
yes or no questions while others ask to rate satisfaction on 1-5 scale (where 1
represents "not at all satisfied" and 5 represents "extremely satisfied").
Definitions
Job satisfaction has been defined as a pleasurable emotional state resulting
from the appraisal of one’s job ); an affective reaction to one’s job ; and an
attitude towards one’s job . Weiss (2002) has argued that job satisfaction is an
attitude but points out that researchers should clearly distinguish the objects
of cognitive evaluation which are affect (emotion), beliefs and behaviours .
This definition suggests that we form attitudes towards our jobs by taking into
account our feelings, our beliefs, and our behaviors.
History
One of the biggest preludes to the study of job satisfaction was the Hawthorne
studies. These studies (1924-1933), primarily credited to Elton Mayo of the
Harvard Business School, sought to find the effects of various conditions (most
notably illumination) on workers’ productivity. These studies ultimately showed
that novel changes in work conditions temporarily increase productivity (called
the Hawthorne Effect). It was later found that this increase resulted, not from
the new conditions, but from the knowledge of being observed. This finding
provided strong evidence that people work for purposes other than pay, which
paved the way for researchers to investigate other factors in job satisfaction.
Scientific management (aka Taylorism) also had a significant impact on the study
of job satisfaction. Frederick Winslow Taylor’s 1911 book, Principles of
Scientific Management, argued that there was a single best way to perform any
given work task. This book contributed to a change in industrial production
philosophies, causing a shift from skilled labor and piecework towards the more
modern approach of assembly lines and hourly wages. The initial use of
scientific management by industries greatly increased productivity because
workers were forced to work at a faster pace. However, workers became exhausted
and dissatisfied, thus leaving researchers with new questions to answer
regarding job satisfaction. It should also be noted that the work of W.L. Bryan,
Walter Dill Scott, and Hugo Munsterberg set the tone for Taylor’s work.
Some argue that Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, a motivation theory, laid
the foundation for job satisfaction theory. This theory explains that people
seek to satisfy five specific needs in life – physiological needs, safety needs,
social needs, self-esteem needs, and self-actualization. This model served as a
good basis from which early researchers could develop job satisfaction theories.
Models of job satisfaction
Affect Theory
Edwin A. Locke’s Range of Affect Theory (1976) is arguably the most famous job
satisfaction model. The main premise of this theory is that satisfaction is
determined by a discrepancy between what one wants in a job and what one has in
a job. Further, the theory states that how much one values a given facet of work
(e.g. the degree of autonomy in a position) moderates how satisfied/dissatisfied
one becomes when expectations are/aren’t met. When a person values a particular
facet of a job, his satisfaction is more greatly impacted both positively (when
expectations are met) and negatively (when expectations are not met), compared
to one who doesn’t value that facet. To illustrate, if Employee A values
autonomy in the workplace and Employee B is indifferent about autonomy, then
Employee A would be more satisfied in a position that offers a high degree of
autonomy and less satisfied in a position with little or no autonomy compared to
Employee B. This theory also states that too much of a particular facet will
produce stronger feelings of dissatisfaction the more a worker values that
facet.
Dispositional Theory
Another well-known job satisfaction theory is the Dispositional Theory . It is a
very general theory that suggests that people have innate dispositions that
cause them to have tendencies toward a certain level of satisfaction, regardless
of one’s job. This approach became a notable explanation of job satisfaction in
light of evidence that job satisfaction tends to be stable over time and across
careers and jobs. Research also indicates that identical twins have similar
levels of job satisfaction.
A significant model that narrowed the scope of the Dispositional Theory was the
Core Self-evaluations Model, proposed by Timothy A. Judge in 1998. Judge argued
that there are four Core Self-evaluations that determine one’s disposition
towards job satisfaction: self-esteem, general self-efficacy, locus of control,
and neuroticism. This model states that higher levels of self-esteem (the value
one places on his self) and general self-efficacy (the belief in one’s own
competence) lead to higher work satisfaction. Having an internal locus of
control (believing one has control over her\his own life, as opposed to outside
forces having control) leads to higher job satisfaction. Finally, lower levels
of neuroticism lead to higher job satisfaction .
Two-Factor Theory (Motivator-Hygiene Theory)
Frederick Herzberg’s Two factor theory (also known as Motivator Hygiene Theory)
attempts to explain satisfaction and motivation in the workplace This theory
states that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are driven by different factors –
motivation and hygiene factors, respectively. Motivating factors are those
aspects of the job that make people want to perform, and provide people with
satisfaction. These motivating factors are considered to be intrinsic to the
job, or the work carried out. Motivating factors include aspects of the working
environment such as pay, company policies, supervisory practices, and other
working conditions.
While Hertzberg's model has stimulated much research, researchers have been
unable to reliably empirically prove the model, with Hackman & Oldham suggesting
that Hertzberg's original formulation of the model may have been a
methodological artifact . Furthermore, the theory does not consider individual
differences, conversely predicting all employees will react in an identical
manner to changes in motivating/hygiene factors. . Finally, the model has been
criticised in that it does not specify how motivating/hygiene factors are to be
measured.
Job Characteristics Model
Hackman & Oldham proposed the Job Characteristics Model, which is widely used as
a framework to study how particular job characteristics impact on job outcomes,
including job satisfaction. The model states that there are five core job
characteristics (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and
feedback) which impact three critical psychological states (experienced
meaningfulness, experienced responsibility for outcomes, and knowledge of the
actual results), in turn influencing work outcomes (job satisfaction,
absenteeism, work motivation, etc.) . The five core job characteristics can be
combined to form a motivating potential score (MPS) for a job, which can be used
as an index of how likely a job is to affect an employee's attitudes and
behaviors. A meta-analysis of studies that assess the framework of the model
provides some support for the validity of the JCM .
Measuring job satisfaction
This article or section needs to be wikified to meet Wikipedia's quality
standards.
Please help improve this article with relevant internal links. (April 2007)
There are many methods for measuring job satisfaction. By far, the most common
method for collecting data regarding job satisfaction is the Likert scale (named
after Rensis Likert). Other less common methods of for gauging job satisfaction
include: Yes/No questions, True/False questions, point systems, checklists, and
forced choice answers.
The Job Descriptive Index (JDI), created by Smith, Kendall, & Hulin (1969), is a
specific questionnaire of job satisfaction that has been widely used. It
measures one’s satisfaction in five facets: pay, promotions and promotion
opportunities, coworkers, supervision, and the work itself. The scale is simple,
participants answer either yes, no, or can’t decide (indicated by ‘?’) in
response to whether given statements accurately describe one’s job.
The Job in General Index is an overall measurement of job satisfaction. It was
an improvement to the Job Descriptive Index because the JDI focused too much on
individual facets and not enough on work satisfaction in general.
Other job satisfaction questionnaires include: the Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire (MSQ), the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS), and the Faces Scale. The
MSQ measures job satisfaction in 20 facets and has a long form with 100
questions (5 items from each facet) and a short form with 20 questions (1 item
from each facet). The JSS is a 36 item questionnaire that measures nine facets
of job satisfaction. Finally, the Faces Scale of job satisfaction, one of the
first scales used widely, measured overall job satisfaction with just one item
which participants respond to by choosing a face.
'Variables and Measures' The overall job satisfaction levels of the Faculty
members measured with the help of 5 dimensions namely
Job,supervisor,coworkers,pay ,and promotion. Information regarding faculty
members age,education ,job level,foreign qualification,numbers of years in
organization,other source of income,gender,and marital status have also been
obtained.(shamail etal,2004) (JOURNAL OF INDEPENDENT STUDIES &
RESEARCH,VOLUME2,NUMBER1,JANUARY 2004)
Relationships and practical implications
Job Satisfaction can be an important indicator of how employees feel about their
jobs and a predictor of work behaviours such as organizational citizenship ,
absenteeism , and turnover . Further, job satisfaction can partially mediate the
relationship of personality variables and deviant work behaviors .
One common research finding is that job satisfaction is correlated with life
satisfaction . This correlation is reciprocal, meaning people who are satisfied
with life tend to be satisfied with their job and people who are satisfied with
their job tend to be satisfied with life. However, some research has found that
job satisfaction is not significantly related to life satisfaction when other
variables such as nonwork satisfaction and core self-evaluations are taken into
account .
An important finding for organizations to note is that job satisfaction has a
rather tenuous correlation to productivity on the job. This is a vital piece of
information to researchers and businesses, as the idea that satisfaction and job
performance are directly related to one another is often cited in the media and
in some non-academic management literature. A recent meta-analysis found an
average uncorrected correlation between job satisfaction and productivity to be
r=.18; the average true correlation, corrected for research artifacts and
unreliability, was r=.30 . Further, the meta-analysis found that the
relationship between satisfaction and performance can be moderated by job
complexity, such that for high-complexity jobs the correlation between
satisfaction and performance is higher (ρ=.52) than for jobs of low to moderate
complexity (ρ=.29). In short, the relationship of satisfaction to productivity
is not necessarily straightforward and can be influenced by a number of other
work-related constructs, and the notion that "a happy worker is a productive
worker" should not be the foundation of organizational decision-making.
With regard to job performance, employee personality may be more important than
job satisfaction. The link between job satisfaction and performance is thought
to be a spurious relationship; instead, both satisfaction and performance are
the result of personality.
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